Master Slave Husband Wife and Slavery in the Utah Territory

The audiobook I'm listening to right now:
Master Slave Husband Wife

For Juneteenth! 

"Master Slave Husband Wife: An Epic Journey from Slavery to Freedom" by Ilyon Woo recounts the amazing story of self emancipation of Ellen and William Craft who flee Georgia in 1848. The book also gives a good background on national political events of the time.

To compare to Utah's history, I find myself referring back to another book, "This Abominable Slavery: Race, Religion, and the Battle over Human Bondage in Antebellum Utah" by W. Paul Reeve, Christopher B. Rich Jr, and LaJean Purcell Carruth.

The Utah territory was a concern to North and South politicians and became a target of "The Twin Relics of Barbarism - Polygamy and Slavery."

Both books are fascinating.

Some thoughts:

In December 1848 Ellen and William Craft self-emancipated (fled slavery) from Georgia by Ellen dressing as a White gentleman (Master) traveling north with a slave (Husband).

At the same time in the Salt Lake Valley, it was the 2nd winter for the Mormon pioneers. LDS policy regarding slavery was ambiguous and territorial documents were neutral on the issue. Yet, by fall 1848, about 55 enslaved individuals lived in the Salt Lake Valley. Although slavery was outlawed in US Territories in 1862, it is unknown if Utah's enslaved people were immediately emancipated. (Refer to This Abominable Slavery for a fascinating detailed discussion).


Excerpt from "This Abominable Slavery" Chapter 3 "Utah's Juneteenth" Emphasis is mine.

On June 13, 1862, John M. Bernhisel, Utah Territory’s delegate to Congress, wrote to Brigham Young to fill him in on legislative happenings in Washington, D.C. Bernhisel informed Young of his ongoing efforts to win statehood for Utah and told him of other political matters then playing out in the nation’s capital. Sandwiched in between an update on Bernhisel’s effort to secure financial compensation for Young’s claims on his “Indian accounts” and information on newly approved U.S. mail routes in Utah, Bernhisel told Young that “Congress has passed a bill abolishing slavery in all the Territories of the United States, and only requires the sanction of the Executive to become a law.” He also let Young know that “[t]he polygamy bill has passed both Houses” of Congress. [Brigham] Young thus learned that within weeks of each other, Republicans in Congress had made good on their 1856 pledge to “prohibit in the territories, those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery.

On June 20 [1862], President Abraham Lincoln signed into law An Act to Secure Freedom to All Persons within the Territories of the United States, and in doing, so he ostensibly freed Utah’s remaining roughly 35 slaves. On July 2, the Church-owned Deseret News reported that fact without elaboration. There was no banner headline or extensive story about what the law’s passage meant to Utah’s enslavers or to those whom they enslaved. There were no instructions that accompanied the news; LDS leaders or government officials did not tell Utah’s enslavers to emancipate their slaves or in any way establish guidelines or expectations. There was no sense of relief or feelings of joy expressed over the legal end of slavery in the territory. In fact, the announcement in the Deseret News would have been easy to miss. It was published on page four, tucked into the middle of a column titled “From Washington,” with no fanfare or commentary whatsoever. Nothing drew the reader’s eye to the column and no sense of adulation accompanied the report. The paper simply informed its readers that the “President approved the bill prohibiting slavery in the Territories.” That was it.

Horace H. Voss, Mayor of Franklin Avenue

Horacious “Horace” H. Voss (1863-1906) was one the political and civic leaders of SLC’s historically Black neighborhood of Franklin Ave, now known as Edison St. 

I refer to him as the unofficial mayor of Franklin Ave. The neighborhood had several prominent leaders who were all active in civics, newspapers, religious organizations, and politics, but Voss was unique in a couple specific aspects: he was the first person of color to serve as a Legislative Officer and owned real estate.

Horace H. Voss. I refer to him as the unofficial mayor of Franklin Ave, Salt Lake City.

Originally from Tennessee, Voss spent a few years in Kansas City, Missouri, before arriving in SLC in 1891.

He quickly became involved with Salt Lake’s small, but active, Black community. He was one of the vocal leaders of the Black Republicans, helped organize the annual Emancipation Day celebrations, was a trustee of Salt Lake's Trinity African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, and was a member of several Black fraternal lodges. 

Notably, Voss was the first person of color to serve as a Legislative Officer in Utah. In 1903 he was appointed to serve as Doorkeeper, a position granted to him by the Utah Republican Party for “delivering the Black Vote.”  This type of appointment was something that the Black community fought for, especially since the position commonly offered was that of dog catcher, a thankless and difficult City position.

Although Edison Street recorded 100% Black residents in the early 1900s, Voss, and his wife Lizzie, were the only Black people to own property in this neighborhood. He owned houses at 254 and 254 ½ S. Edison Street. (Of note there were other Black property owners in Millcreek and on the outskirts of SLC).

Voss was killed on Edison Street in 1906.  A day after stopping an attack on an elderly man, the assailant lured Voss into a boarding house and shot him in an act of revenge for interfering the day prior. His murder was national news with many newspapers tracking each development of the trial of his killer.

His funeral was held at the First Methodist Church on the corner of 200 East and 200 South as it was larger than the AME Church. Both Black and White people attended his funeral, the 24th Infantry Band from Fort Douglas played, and it featured choir performances and speeches. Horace Voss’s mother arrived at the funeral from Tennessee as it was underway. He is buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery.

Salt Lake's Franklin Avenue as a Historic Black Neighborhood

General location of Franklin Avenue, between 200-300 South and State St-200 East

Between about 1885 and the 1920s, Franklin Ave (now Edison St) became home to a large population of Black Americans.

This mid-block alley situated within the original 13th Ward, started out like other blocks of the original SLC plat- residential and agricultural lands divided among early Mormon settlers of the 1840s-1850s.

After the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 (through Ogden) and the first railroad spur to SLC in 1870, new arrivals became more common. Coupled with the great western migration of Black Americans after the Civil War, Salt Lake (and Ogden) became a place for people to find work relating to the railroad and hospitality, often the only type of jobs that Black people were allowed to obtain, such as porters, waiters, cooks, maids, laborers, etc. As such, both Salt Lake and Ogden saw population increase of Black Americans and other groups.

A view of Salt Lake City in the 1870s. Although Franklin Ave is located outside the image, it gives a good idea of what the area looked like at this time.

 
Also, by 1870, those early log cabins and small adobe homes on large parcels belonging to the original Mormon settlers had largely fallen into disrepair and had been subdivided; sometimes sold for redevelopment and sometimes rented out to the new SLC arrivals, generally those economically disadvantaged newcomers who could afford these low-cost rentals. On Franklin Avenue, these tended to be Scandinavian speaking converts to the LDS church (through the 1870s-1880s) and eventually to Black Americans.

Franklin Ave had a reputation for being a tough neighborhood in the 1870s. At the time a large Scandinavian population lived on the street. As was common with mid-block alleys, a number of raucous characters were present. Newspapers noted that two families often indulged “in the unlawful practice of calling each other bad names, in the Scandinavian language.”

Brothels started up on Franklin Ave at this time as well. Mid-block alleys and the hidden center of city blocks were out of sight from the more respectable business along the main streets and thus became the preferred location of many vices. At this time the brothels on Franklin Ave seem to have only been run by White people, mostly women. By 1878 the Deseret News identified Franklin Ave as a “Bad Place” with “loose characters.”

The 1880s brought some Black people to the neighborhood. The first Black residents of Franklin Ave that I could find were Alice and Benjamin Nesbitt who resided there in 1884. Alice later became president of the Colored women’s Republican Club and worked to secure voting rights for Black women in Utah. The rooms and houses available for rent were owned primarily by White people; the most prominent owner being John Johnson who supplied rented housing and jobs to people on Franklin Ave.

Notably, many of the buildings were lacking in maintenance and sanitary conditions were atrocious. A sewer line was installed in 1888 but many of the older homes were never connected, and outhouses remained common. The street remained unpaved through this time, which is an important consideration of the sanitary conditions when coupled with lack of standardized garbage disposal, accumulation of animal waste, and the prevalence of coal burning stoves.

Franklin Ave in 1905. One of the earlier images showing the majority residential buildings.

By the time the first Black residents moved into Franklin Ave in the mid-1880s, the street was already a difficult neighborhood. Rents were probably cheap, but brothels and gambling dens were common.

Sanitary conditions were notably inadequate. The Salt Lake Herald complained for several years of the perpetual cesspool that existed on the southern end of Franklin Ave at 300 South; their 1888 article described it as a “slimy, green, stagnant pool [that] emits a very nauseating effluvia these warm days and is bound to make somebody sick…”

The 1890s saw a dramatic shift from White to Black residents, likely drawn by cheap rent. Some of this influx was due to the arrival of the 24th Infantry (Buffalo Soldiers) at Fort Douglas in 1896 with some of the Soldiers families living on Franklin Ave and some Soldiers choosing to stay in SLC after they were discharged from the Army.

The 1900 census shows all but one of the buildings on Franklin Ave were home to Black families, including Ella Phelps who, along with her husband James and son James Roscoe, ran a rooming house for other Black individuals at 249 Franklin Ave (now a parking lot). Notably the Phelps did not own their building.

The exception to Black residents was the Salvation Army’s Workingmen’s Hotel (which is now the Franklin Ave Theater building at 231 Edison- more on that later) which was occupied only by White men.

The Black population of SLC continued to increase, especially in and around Franklin Ave. Throughout the 1890s and early 1900s the Salt Lake Herald-Republican newspaper referred to the street as “Darktown.”

Many of the SLC Black organizations that exist today can trace their beginnings to the residents of Franklin Ave. Both Calvary Baptist Church and Trinity African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church began on Franklin Ave with the initial fundraising efforts and early church meetings.

In 1906, SLC changed the name of Franklin Ave to Edison St, largely to “rebrand” the street from Black residential to White commercial. The first White-owned business, Skelton Printing, moved into the Franklin Ave Theater building in 1906.

Throughout the next decade more business displaced the residents. The 1911 Sanborn Map indicates about half of the buildings on Franklin Ave/Edison St were residential, mostly on the southern half of the street. By 1926, the Sanborn Map shows no residential buildings.

Many of the displaced residents moved to the south end of the Central City neighborhood, mostly 400 South-900 South and Main St-500 East.

Edison Street (formerly Franklin Ave) in 1936, showing majority commercial buildings.

A note on Salt Lake's Black population:

In 1900, 278 Black people were recorded as living in SLC and in 1910 this increased to 737, most of whom (but not all) lived on or around Franklin Ave. The overall Black population in SLC was small during this time, only about 1% of SLC (even accounting for undercounting of the census).

• 1900: 278 black / 77,725 total SLC population = 0.4%
• 1910 737 black / 131,462 total SLC population = 0.6%

For comparison, the 2020 census records Utah's Black population as 2%

Sanborn Maps showing the transition of Franklin Ave to Edison Street, 1926-1950

Blue Houses = Residential Buildings

Red Shopping Cart = Commercial Buildings

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Franklin Avenue's Name Changed to Edison Street in 1906

In 1906, Franklin Avenue’s name was changed to Edison Street. It was a deliberate attempt by SLC government officials and property owners to change the racial make up of the street: from a residential area occupied nearly entirely by Black American families to a commercial district owned and operated by White businesses.

A 1906 newspaper article detailing the excitement of pushing out Black residents of Franklin Ave.

It was a deliberate decision to push an "undesirable" population out of the downtown area of Salt Lake City. Many of whom eventually relocated to the southern half of the Central City neighborhood, primarily south of 400 South and west of 500 East.

The name change was petitioned by property owners of Franklin Ave, who were primarily White individuals and descendants of the original Mormon/LDS Pioneers who settled this block.

The Black residents of the street were primarily renters (although one notable exception- Mr. H.H. Voss, more on him later) and had little say in the future of the neighborhood.

A direct newspaper article title: [The street] Changes Name and Color

 
The first business to move to Edison St was Skelton Printing, who purchased the old Franklin Avenue Theater building (more about that building later) and ghost sign remnants of the printing operation can still be seen on the building.

Additional White owned businesses moved in soon thereafter. Once a budding commercial district was established, Salt Lake City decided to invest in better utilities and beautification efforts. For example, Edison Street was paved in 1909 with cement and sidewalks were installed.

A 1910 photograph of one of the new businesses- Voyles Meat Market at 152 E 200 South.

 
The paving helped resolve sanitary issues of the often muddy street with poor drainage and the high number of older homes that had never been connected to the sewer line (outhouses were abundant).

With the understanding that 1906 marks a significant year in the history of this street, My next several posts will discuss the pre-1906 history (Franklin Avenue) and the post-1906 history (Edison Street): Important events. Significant buildings. Interesting history. So much history to highlight!

NOTE – there is a rumor going around that Edison Street was so named because it was the first street with electric lights in SLC. *This is false.* Main Street was the first electrified street in SLC as it was the showcase business street.

Franklin Avenue History all February

Explore the hidden history of SLC's old Franklin Ave, now known as Edison Street. Located between 200-300 South Streets and State St and 200 East. This mid-block alley was once a micro community of Black Salt Lakers.

I plan to highlight the history of this street during the month of February 2025.

My Top 5 Utah History Podcast Episodes of 2024

Some Utah history podcasts episodes that I enjoyed in 2024.

1. Demolished Places: Laird Heights and Princeton Heights Local Historic District (Ep 34)
Answers to bureaucratic questions about historic resources. An explanation of the difference between (Salt Lake City) local and national historic districts/properties, and their oversight by Salt Lake City Council, the Planning Commission, and the Historic Landmark Commission.

2. Roots Race and Culture: Utah's Black Churches (Feb 1, 2024)

A discussion about the hidden history of Black Churches in Utah. Featuring Rev. France Davis, pastor emeritus of SLC's Calvary Baptist Church; and Rev. Daryell Jackson, pastor of SLC's Trinity African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church.

3. Sunstone Mormon History Podcast: The Indian Slave Trade (Ep 124)

An exploration of the Indigenous slave trade in Utah and the American West during the 19th Century and how Mormon/LDS Settlers contributed and impacted it.  Some great references on the subject included in the show notes.

4. Junction City Justice: The Story of Ogden's Mass Murder (April 9, 2024)

True crime and history intersect in Ogden. A telling of the killing of five people, including a District Judge, on the eve of Pioneer Day 1943. A discussion of the victims, the motive, and the aftermath.

5. The Beehive Archive: Utah Rejects the White Elephant (Aug 26, 2024)

A history story that is timely to current Utah politics. In 1932 the Western States, led by Utah Governor Dern, rejected the proposed transfer of federal lands to the states.

Mammy’s Chicken Inn, Salt Lake City

Mammy's Chicken Inn menu cover, Salt Lake City
Image adapted from worthpoint

Mammy’s Chicken Inn was located at 890 W 2100 South (now Flying J Travel Center parking lot). This is a new one for me.

The restaurant was owned by George Gerard-Theodoracopulos) (1891-1965) who was born in Crete, Greece, and came to SLC in 1910, and his wife Mary L. H. Gerard, originally from Grand Junction, Colorado, and came to SLC in 1917.

The Gerards (as they were commonly known) were associated with several restaurants throughout the years including Mammy’s Chicken Inn, Silver Slipper, Charlott Club, Streamliner, and Dahlia Inn. And many of these got into some trouble with the law regarding bootlegging, bribery, and gambling devices.

The Silver Slipper Inn operated about 1930-1941 and is notable for its location at 3100 Highland Drive, just down the street from another restaurant owned by a different family but also using racist icons, the Coon Chicken Inn at 2960 Highland Drive, which operated 1925-1957.

The Coon Chicken Inn featured an overembellished character of a bald Black man with a porter’s cap. I have posted about this in the past and there is a Wikipedia page on this one.

The Gerards opened Mammy’s Chicken Inn in 1947 at the corner of 900 West and 2100 South SLC. It used the Mammy caricature throughout its branding, including on menus and souvenirs. I could not find a photo of the restaurant but the illustration on the menu shows a large Mammy sign on top of the building’s entrance.

Mammy's Chicken Inn menu. Image adapted from worthpoint

 

Mammy's Chicken Inn menu. Image adapted from worthpoint

Mammy's Chicken Inn menu. Image adapted from worthpoint

Mammy's Chicken Inn advertisements, from the Salt Lake Tribune

The last reference I could find to Mammy’s Chicken Inn being operational was their New Year’s Eve advertisement in December 1960. By this time, the Coon Chicken Inn had already closed.

In SLC (and presumably elsewhere) the term “Mammy Chicken” was used to describe the style of fried chicken as well as to infer authenticity.

I found other references to the use of the term Mammy Chicken for Utah restaurants. A selection of those: 

• 1919: A “real colored mammy” Mammy Margette at Roselawn 4374 Highland Drive
• 1930: Delicious Mammy Fried Chicken, Cabaret Dancing after 9 pm, at Blue Moon Car Service, 3618 Highland Drive
• 1931: Mammy’s Friend Chicken at Glaus’ Coffee Shop, cooked by a different process, 169 S Main SLC
• 1937: Home Cooked Food, Mammy Fried Chicken at Sugar House Café 1058 E 2100 S
• 1941: Mammy Fried Chicken and J. Dean’s Rhythm Boys at Dixieland Tavern, Ogden Highway
• 1948: Mammy Fried Chicken, Home Cooked Meals, Ethel’s Café in Roy, Utah

For additional historical context:

• 1889: Aunt Jemima as a Mammy caricature
• 1909: NAACP founded in NYC
• 1919: Salt Lake Branch of the NAACP founded
• 1925: Lynching of Robert Marshall in Price, Utah
• 1954: Brown v. Board of Education
• 1955: Emmitt Till murder, Rosa Parks bus arrest
• 1960: MLK and others were arrested for a sit-in protest
• 1963: MLK’s I Have a Dream Speech and the March on Washington
• 1978: LDS Church Official Declaration 2 removed the racial restriction of priesthood

A Lookback at the University of Utah Yearbooks 1907-1981

It's graduation time at the University of Utah! Take a look back at student life at the U as shown in these images from the Utonian Yearbooks, 1907-1981.

Digital copies of the Utonian are archived at the Marriott Library.

I found a new-to-me photo of Ms. Mignon Barker Richmond, Utah's first Black woman (person?) to graduate from college (Utah State University) and a prominent community worker and human rights activist in SLC.

Mignon at the Stewart School University of Utah, from Utonian Yearbook 1952, page 83.

This photo of Mignon is from the 1952 University of Utah Utonian Yearbook.

It took 27 years after her graduation from college in 1921 for Mignon to be hired for a professional position in her field - and that is the job shown in this image.

In 1948 Mignon was hired by the University of Utah to start the school lunch program for the old Stewart School on campus (the former location of the Anthro building, just south of The Crocker Science Center (The old Natural History Museum) on President's Circle. She held this job for 5 years.

Richmond Park at 444 E 600 South SLC is named for Mignon.

Read more about Mignon's life on the Better Days website: 

Mignon Barker Richmond, courtesy Mignon Mapp from Better Days.

Salt Lake City History in the News, Dec 2022

The history of Salt Lake City, and other areas in Utah, have made the news recently. Here is a news roundup of some of those stories. Direct links are in the captions.

John Browning: The Ogden Man Who Revamped Firearms Technology

Ogden buys Union Station so it can ‘create its own destiny’ downtown

Conversations with Rachel Morot

Uniquely Utah: A town stuck in time

Haralambos Kambouris, an Immigrant's Tale: How an early member of Utah's Greek community rode waves of change to the mines of Bingham Canyon and beyond.  

Fleet Block Development Un-Paused After Public Engagement Push

Salt Lake west side residents voice opposition to I-15 expansion

Tribes Intervene in Lawsuit Restoring Two Utah National Monuments

New West High School in Salt Lake could improve security efforts

A Utah WWII veteran dies at age 101: Wallace Gatrell lived in Farmington, and witnessed a century’s worth of history

Belonging in Utah: U of U professor shares Black history story of Isaac Manning

Uniquely Utah: A town stuck in time